History of Ukraine

The Baptism of Kyivan Rus': Volodymyr the Great's Path to a New Faith

Volodymyr the Great ruled Kyivan Rus' at the end of the tenth century, and his decision to abandon the old gods changed the course of Eastern European history. He didn't choose Christianity out of sudden inspiration. Years of political calculation, military pressure, and personal ambition led him there.

The Origins and Childhood of Volodymyr the Great

Volodymyr's mother, Malusha, managed household affairs at the court of Princess Olha until she caught the attention of Olha's son, Prince Sviatoslav, and became pregnant by him. Olha, furious, sent her away to a distant estate, where the boy was born in isolation and later raised by Malusha's brother, Dobrynia.

Volodymyr grew up carrying a stigma - chroniclers used a term meaning "son of a servant," and his half-brothers mocked him for it. Only Dobrynia taught him resilience instead of resentment. When Novgorod asked for a prince of Sviatoslav's own bloodline, his older sons refused the post, so Sviatoslav sent Volodymyr instead. The boy ruled there for roughly seven years, building alliances with Varangian warriors that proved decisive once his brothers began fighting over their inheritance.

Volodymyr's Struggle for the Kyiv Throne

Sviatoslav divided Rus' among his three sons before he died: Yaropolk received Kyiv, Oleh took the Drevlian lands, and Volodymyr governed Novgorod. The arrangement didn't last - a hunting dispute escalated into war between Oleh and one of Yaropolk's commanders, and Oleh died during the retreat from a lost battle.

Rather than risk a direct fight, Volodymyr fled to Scandinavia and gathered Norse allies while Yaropolk took Novgorod without resistance. It didn't last: Volodymyr returned with a new army, reclaimed the city, and marched on Kyiv, but first tried a marriage alliance with the ruling family of Polotsk. The proposal was rejected in humiliating terms, so he seized the city by force instead.

The final move against Yaropolk relied on treachery: Volodymyr bribed his brother's own commander into luring him out of Kyiv toward an ambush, where he was killed. By his mid-twenties, Volodymyr controlled the entire realm his father once ruled, won through deception, violence, and a willingness to turn both against his own family.

The Failure of Paganism and Volodymyr's Choice of Faith for Kyivan Rus'

Once he held Kyiv, Volodymyr tried to unify his sprawling, mixed territory through religion, raising wooden idols in the capital with the thunder god Perun placed above the rest as a symbol of princely power. The plan worked at first, but the deeper problem never went away: Novgorod and Rostov resented having Kyiv's chosen gods forced on them, and the push for unity created friction instead of loyalty.

Meanwhile, the world beyond Rus' was shifting toward organized monotheistic faiths, and a pagan ruler looked like an outsider to potential trading partners. Later chronicles describe Volodymyr weighing envoys from several religions: Islam appealed to a ruler with many wives, until the ban on alcohol and pork and the requirement of circumcision put him off; Rome's fasting-heavy faith got dismissed quickly; Judaism was tied to a people who no longer held their own homeland. A Greek philosopher sent from Byzantium made the strongest impression, walking him through the biblical narrative.

Language also mattered. Every other faith required worship in a foreign language, while Byzantine Christianity, thanks to earlier missionary efforts to translate Scripture into Slavic, could be practiced in a language people already understood. Volodymyr sent envoys to observe each faith firsthand, and the ones who visited Constantinople came back describing overwhelming beauty and ceremony. That report, combined with the memory that his grandmother Olha had embraced Christianity decades earlier through the Byzantine rite, influenced the decision that ultimately led to the Baptism of Kyivan Rus'.

The Siege of Chersonesus and Volodymyr's Demands on Byzantium

Volodymyr didn't simply request baptism the way his grandmother had. He spent a year preparing an army, then marched on Chersonesus, a major Byzantine outpost on the Crimean coast, in the summer of 988. The siege dragged on until an informant revealed a weakness in the city's water supply, and Chersonesus surrendered.

Taking the city gave Volodymyr real leverage in his talks with Constantinople. He demanded marriage to Princess Anna, sister of Emperor Basil II, threatening to march on the capital if refused. The emperor had little room to maneuver - a rival general's rebellion had broken out the year before - so Basil agreed on one condition: Volodymyr had to accept Christianity first, since a princess born to a reigning emperor could not be given to a pagan husband.

Volodymyr accepted without much fuss, saying the decision matched what he'd already intended. The agreement sealed both a political alliance and the baptism of Russia in 988, tying two different outcomes to one negotiation, and Volodymyr came home a baptized ruler.

How the Baptism of Kyivan Rus' Took Place in Kyiv and Other Regions

Back in Kyiv, Volodymyr moved fast. The idols he had once raised were torn down and burned, and Perun, his old patron god, was dragged through the streets to the river and cast into the water. The next day, Volodymyr summoned the whole population of Kyiv to the riverbank and had them baptized together - roughly two years to settle on a faith, and only one day to convert his capital.

Spreading the new religion beyond Kyiv proved far harder. Novgorod turned to open revolt, and reinforcements had to set parts of the city on fire to break the standoff - a grim local saying held that it was baptized "with the sword" and "with fire." In Rostov, missionary bishops were driven out, and along the Oka River, the Vyatichi tribes resisted for over a century, sometimes killing priests sent to convert them. The Christianization of Rus' wasn't a single event so much as a decades-long, uneven process that met genuine resistance far from the capital.

Some vocabulary from this period survived into modern Ukrainian - words tied to faith, church, and baptism trace straight back to these events. Students working through structured lessons, like the ones at Lng Lab, often run into this history early. The Legacy of Volodymyr the Great and the European Integration of Rus'.

After his conversion, Volodymyr reportedly traded the ruthlessness of his early reign for a more disciplined, austere approach to life, directing state revenue to the Church and granting land to monasteries that education, architecture, and the arts all benefited from.

Conversion also reshaped how Rus' stood abroad. Volodymyr married his children into nearly every major power in the region - Poland, Sweden, Hungary, and Bohemia - while his own union with Princess Anna connected Kyiv to Byzantium and, through her family, to the Holy Roman Empire. A ruler once dismissed as unfit because of his birth had, within a couple of decades, married his children into the courts of Christian Europe.

That transformation didn't survive Volodymyr's death without cost - his sons fought bitterly over succession, and several were murdered within a year of his passing. But the groundwork he laid outlasted that violence, shaping how Rus' related to Christian Europe for centuries. For anyone learning Ukrainian, LangLab also covers topics related to Ukrainian history and culture.

Frequently Asked Questions About the Baptism of Kyivan Rus'

1. Why Did Prince Volodymyr Reject Islam and Judaism When Choosing a Faith?

Islam's ban on alcohol and pork, plus the requirement of circumcision, reportedly struck Volodymyr as unworkable for a ruler whose court depended on feasting and hospitality. Judaism was tied to a people who, as the Khazar envoys admitted themselves, no longer held their own homeland - a bad omen for a warrior state trying to expand its territory rather than shrink it.

2. Why Did Volodymyr Capture the Byzantine City of Chersonesus (Korsun) Before the Christianization of Kyivan Rus'?

Taking Chersonesus gave Volodymyr something diplomacy alone couldn't: leverage. Byzantium had little reason to hand a princess born into the imperial family to a foreign pagan ruler under normal circumstances. Once the city fell, Volodymyr could set the terms of his own conversion, and a distracted Constantinople, dealing with a rebellion of its own, had every reason to agree.

3. Is It True That the Christianization of Rus' Happened Peacefully and Without Resistance?

No. Kyiv converted in a single day, but that was the exception. Novgorod resisted hard enough that commanders reportedly burned part of the city to end the standoff, and regions like Rostov and the Oka River lands held onto their old beliefs for generations. The baptism of the Rus' was a gradual, often violent process that took far longer than the famous scene on the riverbank in Kyiv suggests.

4. Why Did the Language of Worship Become an Important Factor in Volodymyr's Choice of Christianity?

Every other faith on offer meant worship in a language his people didn't speak - Arabic, Hebrew, or Latin. Byzantine Christianity was different: thanks to earlier missionary work translating scripture into Slavic, the Greek rite could be practiced in a language Rus' already understood. For a ruler trying to build loyalty across a diverse, often illiterate population, that difference mattered as much as theology.

This section was partly created by the graduation work of a student with a great interest in Ukraine. 

Under communism (1917–1939) 

Russian Revolution (1917–1918) 

During the February Revolution, Tsar Nicholas II was deposed by demonstrators and a provisional Russian government was established. The First World War continued, but the soldiers were unmotivated. They committed massacres of Jews and Ukrainians and there was rape and plunder. 

A Ukrainian parliament was formed in Ukraine, with the Socialist Party as the largest party. They sought more autonomy, but nothing was done with their request. During the October Revolution, the provisional government that emerged from the February Revolution was deposed and Russia became communist under the leadership of Lenin. In Kiev people did not agree with this change and two weeks later the Ukrainian People's Republic was founded, an autonomous communist republic, separate from Russia. 

Lenin's government could not allow this because of Ukraine's economic importance to all of Russia. An army was sent to Kiev and the Ukrainian People's Republic sought support from other European powers. We managed to get support from Germany. Meanwhile, the Russian army had captured Kiev. A month later, Russia also made peace with the Germans, one of the demands being that the Ukrainian People's Republic would be recognized. The First World War was over for Russia. 

With German help, the Ukrainians managed to drive the Red Army out of Kiev. The Germans made a distant descendant of a Cossack hetman, the leader of the Cossacks, the boss. Thus, Ukraine became a hetmanate, a Cossack empire, for six months, just as in 1649. This replaced the Ukrainian People's Republic. At this time there were approximately 400,000 German and Austrian soldiers active in Ukraine. 

Geographic dimensions 

The conflict will be examined in this chapter using the model of the four geographical dimensions. This is the sub-question that belongs to this chapter: What is the physical, socio-cultural, economic and political situation in Ukraine now? 

The first dimension is the physical dimension. 

This dimension mainly revolves around nature in the area. Natural reserves play an important role. The socio-cultural dimension is about social differences and the different cultures that play a role. Religion and language are also part of this. The economic dimension is mainly about money, which economic interests play a role in the conflict area? Finally, the political dimension concerns positions of power in the area. 

What are the strategies of the different parties? Governance, borders and conflicts are important in this geographical dimension. 

Physical dimension 

The physical dimension concerns the natural environment. In Ukraine you can mainly look at natural resources and the Ukrainian landscape. 

Location 

Ukraine borders the Black Sea to the south, but the coastline is relatively short. As a result, Ukraine has a temperate continental climate. 

Crimea is located in the south in the Black Sea and is a peninsula. The Dnieper River, the largest Ukrainian river, flows through the center of the country. 

Stocks 

Before the Ukrainian plains were colonized by the Russians, it was mainly steppe. At the time of colonization, Ukraine became the breadbasket of Europe. Many agricultural products were grown. Quite large parts of Ukraine are still untouched nature. Much of Ukraine is fertile lowlands. Many minerals can be found, especially in the east of Ukraine. Ukraine is the country with the most titanium in the world and the country with the third largest iron ore reserves. Ukraine itself has no gas and oil reserves. 

Socio-cultural dimension 

The important components of the socio-cultural dimension are religion, language, traditions and social groups. 

Cultural division  in Ukraine

Culturally, Ukraine is deeply divided. Russians originally live in the far east of Ukraine. The south of Ukraine has traditionally been quite multicultural. In addition to Russians and Ukrainians, Jews, Germans and Greeks also live in this part of the country. Many Russians live in Crimea because it has been Russian for a long time. 

The Crimean Tatars have found their "home" in Crimea after being expelled by former rulers in Russia. In the west and center of Ukraine almost exclusively ethnic Ukrainians live. There has never actually been real unity in Ukraine. You can say that western Ukraine has developed a well-developed national feeling, the people here really feel part of a Ukrainian nation. In the east this feeling is less developed. Eastern Ukraine has almost always belonged to Russia in the past. Western Ukraine has long been Austro-Hungarian and Polish. In contrast to Austria-Hungary and Poland, the Russians have been more concerned with making the Ukrainian population part of their culture. According to some, you cannot immediately speak of two Ukraine's. Most of the residents of the eastern part of Ukraine would like to continue living in an independent Ukraine, but are more oriented towards Russia than towards Europe.

Identity of the inhabitants 

The ethnic identity of most residents of Ukraine is very difficult to determine. After all, people can choose whether they present themselves as Russian or Ukrainian. For example, the percentage of Russians was 22.1 percent in 1989 and 17.3 percent in 2001. It is impossible that so many Russians left in that time. People from a mixed marriage can also choose their identity. There are also people who consider themselves Ukrainian but speak Russian, or feel addressed to both nationalities. There is also a mixture of both languages. The Ukrainian regions that feel most connected to Russia are the easternmost regions of Donetsk and Luhansk, also called the Donets Basin. These are the regions where the current conflict is raging. The people here identify more as natives of the Donets Basin than of Ukraine. 

Other population groups together do not exceed 5 percent. There is no population group that exceeds 1 percent within that 5 percent. The Jews used to be a large population group, but since Stalin's policies and the Second World War they have been part of that 5 percent. There is hardly any attention paid to the extermination of the Jews in Ukraine. Polls show that Russians in Ukraine are not a group that always favors Russia over Ukraine. Except in Crimea, most Russians in Ukraine feel different from Russians in Russia. In Ukraine people are often still fairly positive about their past as a Ukrainian Soviet republic. Yet Stalin's actions are considered bad. Ukrainians and Russians do not yet agree on various historical events. According to Russia, some historical figures have been very good for the world, while Ukrainians despise these people. 

World War II (1939–1945) 

Beginning of World War II (1939–1942) 

World War II began when Adolf Hitler invaded Poland. France and Great Britain declared war on Germany. The Soviet Union did not take any action because of the non-aggression pact. Later, the Soviet Union invaded Poland under the guise of protecting ethnic minorities. Poland was divided and the Soviet Union also regained the far western part of Ukraine. This territory was added to the Ukrainian Soviet Republic. Ukrainian culture and Russian culture were immediately imposed on these areas. Because not all residents of these areas were ethnic Ukrainians. 

The peace treaty between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union did not last very long. In 1940 an attack was prepared called Operation Barbarossa. Stalin already received reports that an attack was being prepared, but he saw it as a false alarm. In June 1941, Nazi Germany began the attack. The intention was to conquer all of European Russia in a short time. Hitler managed to attack quickly at first. In September 1941 he already took control of Kiev and in July 1942 he conquered Crimea. All of Ukraine was now in German hands. Much of the industry in eastern Ukraine had been disabled before the Germans arrived. The Soviet army was not doing very well. Many Soviet soldiers were killed. There is a map in which you see the German advance in different shades of green. The lighter green the later in the war. You see that the Germans have moved quite far into the Soviet Union in relatively few years.

Independent Ukraine (1991-present)

Ukrainian opinion on independence (1991)

During the collapse of the Soviet Union, elections regarding their independence were held in various former Soviet republics. In the 1991 independence elections, 85 percent of the inhabitants of Ukraine turned out to vote. Of these, 90 percent voted in favor of independence. There was also a very large majority in eastern Ukraine and Crimea. Discontent over the failure of the Soviet Union was so great that people believed things could only get better. Quite soon after Ukraine's independence, the Soviet Union decided that it was better to dissolve itself. There is a map showing the borders of Ukraine from independence until the annexation of Crimea in 2014.

Consequences of independence (1991-1994)

Ukraine became a capitalist country in 1991; the Communist Party was not permitted until 1993. Ukrainian politics struggled to get off the ground. In terms of foreign policy, Ukraine wanted to be as independent as possible. Initially, they wanted to have less to do with Russia. Nevertheless, Ukraine was still a member of an organization for former Soviet states: the Commonwealth of Independent States. Russia viewed this more as a kind of umbrella organization with some power, organized from Moscow. Ukraine saw it more as a discussion club for post-Soviet states. Crimea was part of the discussion from the very beginning. Many Russians lived there, as well as Crimean Tatars, and it originally belonged to Russia. As early as 1954, various Soviet politicians believed that Crimea did not belong to the Ukrainian Soviet Republic. In 1992, independence was even declared in Crimea by separatist groups. They did not hold out for long because they received no support from the Russian government. Many Crimean Tatars were allowed to return to Crimea as early as 1989. However, they were granted very few rights by the Russians and Ukrainians.
President Bush Sr. did not consider Ukraine very important at the beginning. But when Clinton came to power in the United States, Ukraine became one of the largest recipients of American aid. The United States benefited from keeping Ukraine independent because they wanted to prevent Russia from regaining significant influence in Eastern Europe. Ukraine and Poland forgot their hostile past and began working closely together. Ukraine remained a kind of buffer zone between Europe and Russia.

The Ukrainian economy failed to get off to a good start, and economic problems soon arose. Foreign demand for machinery and transport declined, and Russia raised oil and gas prices. This resulted in high inflation. In 1992, Ukraine introduced its own currency, the Hhrivnas, discontinuing the Ruble. However, not everyone in the population managed to benefit fully from this; corruption meant that the rich, in particular, became richer. There was also a particularly high level of corruption in Ukraine. The Ukrainian population declined due to a lower birth rate and high emigration.

After independence, an attempt was made to Ukrainize the entire population. The intention was for many Russian residents to also come to feel Ukrainian. This was not very successful. For instance, while Ukrainian became the sole official language, the media still used Russian extensively. A new church was formed in 1992: the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. The advantage of this was that the leader of this church was based in Kyiv rather than Moscow. Nevertheless, many believers still followed the leader in Moscow.

Economic dimension

The economic dimension is primarily about production, consumption, labor, trade—essentially everything related to money.

Ukrainian economy in general

In eastern Ukraine, you primarily find capital-intensive industry. Ukrainian steel production is very substantial; Ukraine is one of the world's largest steel exporters. The population in eastern Ukraine is also generally poorer than in the rest of the country. Should Putin gain or maintain control of the eastern parts of Ukraine, he would need to be able to provide pensions for all the workers there. That could prove very difficult. In the south, there is a great deal of trade. Furthermore, western Ukraine has a significant amount of services and manufacturing, as well as small-scale agriculture. The Ukrainian economy is not yet as developed as the economies of Western European countries. Ukrainian oligarchs often hold substantial wealth in eastern Ukraine. It would be disastrous for these oligarchs if these eastern regions were to become Russian. Only 5.6 percent of the Ukrainian workforce is employed in agriculture. Industry accounts for 26 percent of employment. Ukraine is the largest granary of Europe, perhaps even of the world.

Political dimension

The political dimension revolves around positions of power and strategy in regions. Conflicts, governance, and borders are important aspects of this dimension.

Ukrainian position in Europe

Ukraine lies between the European Union and Russia. Historically, Ukraine has long served as a kind of buffer state. After all, Ukraine also means Border State. In the past, Ukraine has frequently been tossed back and forth between various states. Over the past two decades, Ukraine has remained relatively neutral; it has not yet strongly chosen one side or the other. Some politicians leaned slightly towards Russia, while others leaned more towards Europe. A step further than Europe could be a rapprochement with NATO. During his career, Yanukovych leaned towards a free trade agreement with the European Union, but he abandoned it at the last moment. Following Russian threats, he chose Russia. Many Western Ukrainians disagreed with this and rose up in revolt. The new, pro-European government faced significant opposition from Eastern Ukraine. Consequently, a conflict arose between Eastern Ukrainian separatists and the Ukrainian army. In December 2014, the neutral position was truly abandoned, and Ukraine sought closer ties with NATO. This further worsened relations with Russia. Russia does not seem to tolerate Ukraine cooperating more with the West instead of with them. In 2014, Russia annexed Crimea.

What can the West do?

The West's interest is to make former Eastern Bloc countries more stable and democratic. This promotes security and trade. Therefore, many European politicians would prefer Ukraine to cooperate more with the European Union.

Ukraine, like virtually all states in the world, is a member of the United Nations. The United Nations would not be able to intervene in Ukraine easily because Russia can block everything. Russia holds veto power in the United Nations Security Council, which strives for world peace. NATO's capabilities in Ukraine are limited. They do not intend to intervene effectively just yet. An important reason for this is that Ukraine is simply not a NATO member state. The goal of NATO is solely to protect its member states. According to Bob Wouda, rapprochement with the European Union does not immediately imply rapprochement with NATO; these are very different things. Ukraine still suffers from a great deal of corruption, and this is very difficult to reduce quickly. NATO imposes many requirements on Ukraine that the country cannot currently meet. Membership in the European Union is much more likely. Other options then include sanctions and potential arms deliveries. The question is whether this will worsen the conflict or resolve it. Most Western politicians strive for diplomatic solutions, but you cannot continue doing that indefinitely.

Board note: After Crimea was annexed by Russia in 2014, it appeared as if Russia had "given" the Donbass territories occupied by separatists with Russian support to the separatists in February 2022. However, on February 24, 2022, Russia attempted to seize control of the country of Ukraine (including the beginning of Kyiv), which failed. Subsequently, the concentration of fighting between the Ukrainian and Russian armies has shifted to the east and southeast of Ukraine.

On our site, together with the site www.newsua.nl, we are publishing a major paper by the Dutch student Matthijs van der Stoep about Ukrainian history, covering from the early beginnings to the fall of Debaltsevo in 2015.

His pieces, which appeared once a week at the time, have now been collected into a single volume.

Happy reading, for those interested in Ukrainian history.

– The conflict remains frozen in the long term

– The conflict resumes and the separatists gain even more territories

– Russia annexes the separatists' territories

– Russia reduces support for the separatists

Note of the board: We all know how the situation is after almost 5 years of war. The political situation of European countries changed; Russia with his "president" is still convinced that the goal set by Putin can still be achieved. However, it is no longer a "special military operation" either, but clearly acknowledged by Russia that it is a war. A war started by Russia.

The Trident or Tryzub of Ukraine

          UKRAINIAN TRIDENT (TRYZUB)

The Ukrainian coat of arms – trident, or tryzub – has a long history (over a thousand years, if not more), but at the same time, it is a symbol of a modern country. It is short-spoken – and meaningful as well. It reflects heroic events of the past – and it is a stripe of Ukrainian warriors protecting the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine today.

On February 19, 1992, the Ukrainian parliament, Verkhovna Rada, approved the Small State Emblem of Ukraine – one of the three official symbols of our state. In 1996, its status was enshrined in the Constitution.

The trident was the ancestral sign of the Rurik dynasty (10th-12th century, Kyivan Rus' times). Archaeologists still find its image on coins, seals, utensils, bricks, murals. Back in the 10th century, the obverse of coins during the times of Volodymyr the Great, the Prince of Kyiv, bore his portrait. On the other side of the coins, the trident was depicted as Volodymyr's symbol of power.

Previously, tridents were depicted on coins of Kyivan Rus'
Illustrations: you can find in Wikimedia

As perhaps any sign, the Ukrainian trident has its hidden symbolism. Still, with over 40 (!) theories about its actual meaning, it's hardly possible to find the real roots of the symbol. The theories vary from referring to trinity, bow with arrows, candlestick to pointing out its similarity with anchor and even falcon's wings.

Image of the trident, found in the remnants
of the Tithe (Desiatynna) Church in Kyiv
Photo you can find in: 'Out Coat of Arms' album, Rodovid Publishing, 2018

The trident, or tryzub in Ukrainian, wasn't the only symbol used throughout the history of Ukraine. Since the 14th century, other signs (which often characterised regions) became popular, and Ukrainian cossacks later had their own symbols too.

In 1918, just after the Russian empire's collapse, the Ukrainian People's Republic government approved the trident as a state coat of arms. A commission that were empowered to choose a new symbol considered several alternatives: a golden lion (the symbol of the Halychyna region, which was the centre of the Ukrainian national movement for independence in the 19th century), a cossack with his musket (respectively, the sign of Zaporizhzhia cossacks), an image of St. Michael the Archangel (the patron of Kyiv, Ukraine's capital), and more.

Ukrainian State Coat of Arms as of 1918 (in modern style)
Illustration you can find in: Wikimedia

Finally, the ancient symbol of Kyivan Rus' was chosen to symbolise Ukraine's state and national unity. The trident became popular very fast — primarily thanks to its appearance on the banknotes.

100 hryvnias banknote with a trident, 1918
Photo is in the archive from: Radio Svoboda

The symbol connects past and present — from the Kyivan Rus' times, where Ukraine has its roots, to the 21st century. Today, you can see trident on T-shirts everywhere. You can buy souvenirs with it on the streets. You can even get a trident tattoo. After 70 years of Soviet rule, when the trident was called nationalistic and banned, it's now official and widely used again.

Since the days of the Ukrainian People's Republic, the trident (tryzub) has become an important symbol for those who fought for Ukraine's independence 100 years ago and those who protect it now.

see: https://ukraine.ua/stories/trident-tryzub/